Reality, therefore, is subjective. The main implication is an emphasis on knowledge and abilities for personal choice. Hence, the need to acquire knowledge and principles of the human condition and acts of choice-making. Curriculum should have a broad range of subject matter from which learners can choose, i. Most important is that philosophy can free learners to expand their learning and what they believe.
Thus, there should be no standard guides for teachers to follow, given that learners are unique. The following video links philosophies to curricular designs and design considerations:. Based on the major philosophies so far discussed, certain educational philosophies were developed by various scholars. Let us examine some of them. We begin by pointing out that there are two broad categories of educational philosophies: the traditional and the modern philosophies.
Traditional educational philosophies include perennialism and essentialism; while modern educational philosophies include progressivism and reconstructionism. Perennialism draws from both idealism and realism. With that focus, education should be the same for everyone. Education must therefore pursue perennial truths. These truths are absolute and universal. The philosophy presupposes that there are permanent studies and knowledge that is available, particularly from the great books, which should be taught to all students.
The stress is on significance of reason and intellectual development. Essentialism focuses on traditional subjects, reading, writing, and mathematics. In the following video, Dr. Thomas Lickona describes the importance of respect and responsibility in schools. As with perennialism, essentialism is also on the major traditional philosophies of idealism and realism. Schools should therefore not be side-tracked into catering to the personal problems and social needs of students.
Cultural heritage needs should be considered for curriculum making. Essential skills especially reading, writing, and arithmetic three Rs and academic subjects such as English, science, and mathematics are given priority in the education process with an emphasis on mastery of concepts and principles of subject-matter. As with perennials, the curriculum is subject-centered and emphasized separate organized disciplines as opposed to integrated subjects.
Moving from traditional educational philosophies, let us now examine more modern ones. Progressivism is one of the educational philosophies originating from pragmatism.
Hence all that we discussed earlier about pragmatism holds true for progressivism. Their studies and research were geared towards identifying the most appropriate type and nature of curriculum for learners. Progressivists education seeks to promote democratic schooling as well as social living. The other major emphasis is on a child or learner-centered curriculum. Selection of study material in line with the expressed interests and concerns of the learner. Non-formal curriculum activities and physical training in areas like games, related hobbies, and other co-curricular areas.
Concerning progressivism, the emphasis is on a child-centered curriculum, which necessitates a flexible and broad curriculum. There is also an emphasis on practical skills. In general, it is possible to identify elements of past education in the present-day curricula in many education systems within the United States and the rest of the world, depending on the past history. The following video shows a real classroom of 4th- and 5th-grade students who are participating in a c onstructivist social studies lesson.
Constructivism is often considered to be an offshoot of progressivism. Reconstructionists hold on to an anthropological—sociological philosophy that would put schools at the forefront of remaking society. Reconstructionism evolved from a critical perspective of the work of the progressivists who put much emphasis on the needs of the child, sometimes at the expense of societal needs. Thus, the study of contemporary social problems become the centerpiece of curriculum content.
The reconstructionists believe that resources are available to solve these problems and the education profession could be the catalyst to prepare and organize future generations to make this possible. They, however, try to avoid indoctrinating children; rather, they seek to lead them in rational discussion and critical analysis of issues. Reconstructionists use multiple teaching materials, and they consider the inclusion of subject matter that would be useful to serve the central cause of the issue of concern.
Planning of curriculum often involves various stakeholders including learners, parents, and community leaders. Table 3. The summary highlights the philosophical base of each of the educational philosophies, the educational aims, the knowledge emphasized, the educational role, and it suggests what the curriculum should focus on as advocated for by each of the respective philosophies.
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It is very much useful to educational practitioner for his work and its place in the general scheme of life. Begin typing your search term above and press enter to search. Press ESC to cancel. Skip to content Home Essay What is the relationship between philosophy and curriculum?
Teachers must, as Goodlad warns, think of the societal, institutional, instructional, individual, and ideological all at once when reflecting on curriculum matters. Whether one thinks of teachers as creators and developers of curriculum, or as the primary implementors, they are key agents in the process of what curriculum becomes. In the preservice teacher education program, attitudes that build curriculum improvement are being cultivated. Schubert , p. Competing Values and Images of Schooling The undercurrent for reflection on school matters is represented by four widely held but conflicting values: equity, excellence, efficiency, and liberty Sergiovanni et.
A detailed account of the relationship of each is presented in Appendix B. These values exist in a constant state of tension such that too much emphasis on any one hinders expression of each of the other three. Sergiovanni et al. A dictionary definition suggests that Egalitarianism is "a social philosophy advocating the removal of inequalities among people, especially with respect to social, political, and economic rights and privileges.
Education professionals have adopted this image as an inclusive policy, with varied curriculum, that attempt to include as many students in schools as long as possible. Regarding the egalitarian ideal and the American high school one author states, at base, the public schools are bound by the egalitarian ideal.
As a nation we retained the hope that our citizens will have some fairly even chance at social, economic and political equality. Since education is one of the most important ways to obtain that equality, all children are obligated to come to school and similarly the schools are obligated to appeal to all their students.
Cusick, , p. The image of social Darwinism is represented in the model by the value of excellence combined with efficiency. This philosophy reasons that life is a competitive struggle and that the strongest survive due to natural selection. The pressures of survival stimulate the strongest to develop skills that benefit human evolution.
Consequently, educators with this image of schooling believe that competitive schools will produce the bureaucrat liberalism Equity decentralized- liberalism Image of Egalitarianism Efficiency ic- -4 Image of Social Darwinism bureaucratic- elitism Excellence decentralized- elitism Liberty Figure 1.
Competing values and images of schooling. Source: Values and images items adapted from "Educational Governance and Administration," Sergiovanni et al. However, egalitarians regard this policy as exclusive, sanctioning failure for students who cannot measure up to standards.
Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study combines preservice teachers' philosophical perspective and curriculum orientation perspective with the illustration of competing values and images presented in Figure 1. This combination resulted in a conceptual model hypothesizing relationships between preservice teachers' educational philosophy and substantive preferences inherent in curriculum orientation.
Philosophical Perspective The definition of educational philosophy adopted for use in this study is that proposed by Phenix , p. A similar conception is reflected by Schubert , p.
Curran suggests that "sets of concepts" of reality, knowledge and values are interrelated to form a philosophy. In each case, educational philosophy is described as something "real"; a fundamental component of the decision-making process of educators. Greene , p. It is as well, to stimulate reflectiveness about the intentions in which teaching begins, the values that are espoused, the ends that are pursued".
Curran claims that a philosophy must be understood in conjunction with the analytical study of teaching in order to gain insight into just what the teacher views to be the goals of education.
Noting the importance for educational leaders to understanding their own philosophy, Sergiovanni and Starrat claim that what is needed is some firm footing in principle.
Just as a political party is supposed to base its decisions and action on a party platform upon which it seeks election, so too, supervisory personnel need a platform upon which, and in the light of which, they can carry on their work.
Sergiovanni and Starrat, , pg. Glickman asserts that ultimately, what goes into a curriculum is derived from a philosophical decision about the purpose of schools.
Philosophies are numerous and overlapping and many have historical roots in each other. With educational application in mind, divergent philosophies can be simplified and classified. Overriding conceptual categories are created by grouping various philosophies that have central agreement on the type and scope of education. Clark and Peterson report that research on teachers' implicit theories constitutes the smallest and youngest part of the research on teacher thinking.
Researchers attempts to build a case for logical consistency between educational philosophy and educational practices have generally focused on the construction of a valid and reliable instrument which would measure possession of an educational philosophy.
This self-assessment instrument, based upon five distinct educational philosophies, is designed to "show preferences on value-laden educational questions" p.
A review of the literature discloses few attempts which measure the consistency with which such a philosophy is held or practiced. The following review of related research presents studies that led to the development of the instrument used in this study. Members of the faculty of George Peabody College developed an instrument designed to identify the educational philosophy of teachers. Participants were asked to select one of three responses which most closely coincided with their own beliefs.
Each of the twelve sets of responses were developed to reflect the educational philosophy of realism, idealism, or pragmatism. Lodge reported a copy of the scale in the appendix of his book, Philosophy of Education.
No evidence was provided regarding the reliability or validity of the instrument. Kerlinger and Kaya developed a scale to measure teachers' beliefs in terms of two global educational philosophies, Progressivism and Traditionalism. The self-report instrument was designed to fit an experimental theory paradigm in which permissive- progressive attitudes and restrictive-traditional attitudes were defined as being characteristic of a dichotomy in educational thinking.
As reported by McAtee and Punch , ten items represent three critical references for both the progressive and traditional dimensions. These are as follows: child needs, individual differences, and social learning for the progressive dimension; discipline, subject matter, and moral standards for the traditional dimension.
According to Adwere-Boamah et al. Another effort to develop an instrument for measuring the educational philosophy of teachers is a two-philosophies empirical-rational Q-sort instrument developed by Gowan, Newsome, and Chandler The instrument consisted of 50 statements considered empirical and 50 considered rational.
Curran, Gordan, and Doyle transformed the GNC scale into an ordinal attitude scale and administered it to undergraduate and graduate classes in the philosophy of education at the University of Florida. Upon item analysis, 40 of these items yielded significant discriminatory power to measure the degree and consistency to which a person's conception of education is conforms to experimentalism or rationalism in the three areas of ontology, epistemology and axiology.
These items were then combined with items from the work of Sayers , Ryans , Kerlinger , and Oliver which were felt to be "philosophic. The results showed graduate students to be more aligned with Experimentalism than undergraduate students. Added to the instrument was a set of epistemological items from the work by a faculty committee which had been charged with development of a list of concepts which were thought to be important for graduates of the college to hold.
Further item analyses yielded a final pool of 50 items which had, over the several test administrations with graduate and undergraduate University of Florida classes, maintained statistically significant discriminatory power. A 24 item instrument was developed that would reliably and validly measure groups on the continuum of a conceptual philosophy of education that ranged from most aligned with experimentalism to most aligned with rationalism.
The results of the study revealed that the population sampled was skewed in the direction of experimentalism. Despite the shortage of subjects demonstrating alignment with rationalism, the items were able to yield satisfactory discriminatory power.
The authors Curran et al. An illustration that outlines a system for the contrast and comparison of educational philosophies and alternative values and ideals is presented in Figure 2. Curriculum Orientation Perspective To the extent that teachers differ in their images of ideal citizens living in an ideal society, they have varying orientations to curriculum.
These orientations or views of curriculum are characterized by assumptions about what is most important to teach, how learning occurs, the roles of teachers and students, and what classrooms ought to be like. Regarding teachers thought processes, Clark and Peterson , p. It is within this context that curriculum is interpreted and acted upon; where teachers teach and students learn.
Educational philosophies combined with competing values and images of schooling. Values and images items adapted from "Educational Governance and Administration," Sergiovanni et al.
Curriculum orientations are rather wide ranging, have some overlap in them, and are often in conflict. They are characterized by different assumptions regarding goals and purposes of education, selection of content and objectives, characteristics of learners and the learning process, and the nature of knowledge Saylor et al.
Unruh and Unruh term the range of orientations a "conceptual maze" and base their discussion on the five orientations of Eisner and Vallance : the development of cognitive processes, curriculum as technology, self-actualization, social reconstruction-relevance, and academic rationalism. In another instance, McNeil describes a humanistic, social reconstructionist, technological, and academic subject curriculum.
Schubert developed a guest speaker approach in an attempt to illustrate the "problematic state of curriculum knowledge. Proposed conceptual model for testing relationships between educational philosophy and orientations to curriculum. Curriculum orientation items adapted from "Curriculum: Perspective, Paradigm, and Perspective," Schubert, The conceptual model of this combination is presented in Figure 3.
Research Questions and Hypotheses The focus of this research is on the educational philosophy and curriculum improvement preferences ofpreservice teachers as analyzed by data reported in the instrument, "A Survey of Educational Philosophy and Curriculum Improvement Preferences.
Are there significant differences in the educational philosophies and curriculum orientations among preservice teachers by area of academic specialization? Are there significant differences in the educational philosophies and curriculum orientations among preservice teachers by area of program of study?
Is the difference between educational philosophies and curriculum orientations between academic specializations the same for different programs of study? The following research hypotheses are derived from the set of relationships between educational philosophy and preferences for curriculum improvements that have been proposed with the conceptual model: Hypothesis 1 A: There is no significant difference in the Experimentalism philosophy ofpreservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of academic specialization.
Hypothesis I B: There is no significant difference in the Experimentalism philosophy of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of program of study. Hypothesis IC: There is no significant two-way interaction for Experimentalism among levels of academic specializations and programs of study as measured by scores on the research instrument Hypothesis 2A: There is no significant difference in the Rationalism philosophy of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of academic specialization.
Hypothesis 2B: There is no significant difference in the Rationalism philosophy of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of program of study. Hypothesis 2C: There is no significant two-way interaction for Rationalism among levels of academic specializations and programs of study as measured by scores on the research instrument.
Hypothesis 3A: There is no significant difference in the Experientialist curriculum orientation of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of academic specialization.
Hypothesis 3B: There is no significant difference in the Experientialist curriculum orientation of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of program of study. Hypothesis 3C: There is no significant two-way interaction for Experientialist curriculum orientation among levels of academic specializations and programs of study as measured by scores on the research instrument.
Hypothesis 4A: There is no significant difference in the Traditionalist curriculum orientation of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of academic specialization. Hypothesis 4B: There is no significant difference in the Traditionalist curriculum orientation of preservice teachers as measured by scores on the research instrument by area of program of study.
Hypothesis 4C: There is no significant two-way interaction for Traditionalist curriculum orientation among levels of academic specializations and programs of study as measured by scores on the research instrument.
These are to test the research hypotheses derived from theoretically expected relationships to validate the conceptual model, and, to determine if relationships exist between educational philosophies, curriculum orientations, and associated variables: academic specialization and program of study.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the plan that will be used to guide the investigation. The main steps will include: the research design, instrumentation, collection of the data, and treatment and analysis of the data. A self-report questionnaire was utilized to gather information from groups of subjects that were drawn from a predetermined population and the study required a score on each variable for each subject.
This instrument entitled, "A Survey of Educational Philosophy and Curriculum Orientation Preferences," begins with a cover sheet that includes instructions and a participant informed consent waiver. Response time was estimated at minutes.
The survey instrument is presented in Appendix A. Section I: Demographic and Experience Information Respondents to the instrument were asked to provide certain information about themselves in the Demographic and Experience Information section of the survey. This section consists of eight items and requires about five minutes for a subject to complete. A description of the respondent group is provided in terms of college class, program of study, academic specialization, gender, and age.
Additionally, the respondents were asked to describe previous teaching experience in terms of three activity descriptors; tutoring, coaching, and teaching. These descriptors were intended to assist in characterizing the respondent group and were not requested for purposes of validating the conceptual model. This part of Section I is also designed to prompt students to reflect upon their previous experiences in a teaching role before beginning Sections II-IV of the survey.
Section II: Images of Curriculum The second section of the survey is designed to elicit open responses about what preservice teachers deem as the ideal teaching situation. Information was compared to that in Section I to concur the academic specialization and program of study variables for quantitative analysis. Written responses to nine open-ended questions were examined. Examples of the questions include: What grade are you teaching?
How many students are in your class? What is the current topic of study? Further questions ask the respondent to draw a picture and give a detailed account of what they and their students are doing. This section requires about minutes for a subject to complete. Section III: School Problems and Proposals A questionnaire was developed for use in this study to assess preferences related to curriculum orientation. This instrument, "School Problems and Proposals," contains six topics that are perennial in public schools.
According to Schubert , p. The labels may change, but many of the problems are perennial. This section requires about 15 minutes for a subject to complete.
The response time for this forced-choice questionnaire is estimated at minutes. According to Curran et al. According to the researchers: this item instrument was considered easily the most extensive and authoritative source of items and thus the obvious resource with which to begin. Upon item analysis, 40 of these GNC items yielded significant discriminatory power to measure the degree and consistency to which a person's conception of education is experimental or rationalistic in the three areas of ontology, epistemology and axiology.
Curran et al. According to the researchers: these successive item analyses yielded a final pool of fifty items which had, over the several test administrations with graduate and undergraduate University of Florida classes, maintained statistically significant discriminatory power. The task then shifted to selecting from these fifty items a short schedule of items which would reliably and validly measure groups on the continuum of a conceptual philosophy of education that ranged from most rationalistic to most experimentalistic.
When subjected to cross-validation analysis, one item fell below the criteria for admissibility and was therefore not recommended for future use. Collection of the Data The basis for this research was to collect empirical evidence about each preservice teacher's educational philosophy and curriculum orientation.
The researcher developed a survey instrument to be used for this purpose. The data were collected by distributing a copy of the research instrument, "A Survey of the Educational Philosophy and Curriculum Orientation Preferences," to preservice teachers during their introductory education classes. Permission required to administer the instrument was granted by the University of Florida Institutional Review Board, department chairpersons, and the course instructors.
In the spring semester , instructors at selected colleges in central and north central Florida were personally contacted by the researcher regarding participation in the study. Arrangements necessary for participation including distribution and collection of the research instrument and an optional follow-up seminar conducted by the researcher were discussed at this time.
Instructors who expressed an interest in participating were then delivered a memo explaining research procedure Appendix D and a class set of the research instrument for distribution to each member of the class. Follow-Up Procedures Arrangements for collecting the surveys was made individually with each participating instructor. The researcher collected each set directly from the instructor or in an agreed upon location such as an instructor's department office. The date and time for a follow-up seminar was confirmed during this exchange.
Response Rate To insure an adequate sample size and diversity, fourteen course instructors at eight different college campuses were personally contacted by the researcher. Each instructor agreed to review correspondence explaining the study and participant requirements Appendix D. After reviewing the correspondence twelve of the fourteen instructors agreed to participate.
One instructor suggested including four different classes in the study raising the total number of groups to fifteen. Of the potential preservice registered in these classes, completed and returned the survey to their instructor. Instructors cited absenteeism as the greatest contributing factor to the incomplete rate of return. Of the completed surveys, 34 could not be analyzed because they lacked sufficient demographic data or were incorrectly completed, such as checking only one response or multiple coding using the same rank.
The valid responses represent a return rate of Table 1 reports the population that returned valid responses. An elementary program of study was indicated by of the respondents, representing Further, elementary-level preservice teachers who chose the academic specialization "English" represent In contrast, the smallest groups represented preservice teachers who were preparing to teach at the middle level.
The profiles depicted in the respondent group are not unlike those in the larger universe of prospective teachers nationwide. Treatment and Analysis of the Data Participating preservice teachers were given directions in Section I of the instrument to answer questions regarding demographics and teaching experience. Of particular interest to the researcher were the variables academic specialization and program of study.
These variables were statistically analyzed in terms of frequencies, means and standard deviations. The qualitative data taken from Section II of the research instrument are used as an adjunct to the quantitative analysis described above.
Participants were given directions to imagine and describe their classroom, their students, and themselves after several years of teaching.
They were to think of themselves as an experienced teacher; "close to the teacher they want to be. Since respondents were asked in Section III to rank order their responses, these data may be classified as ordinal data; objects that stand in relationship to each other as greater than or less than. The SAS program was used for statistical treatment of the data.
Two-way analysis of variance ANOVA was computed as well as chi-squares for each response to test the proposed relationships. A conceptual model was constructed to display possible relationships between these responses. Specifically, answers to the following questions were sought: A Are there significant differences in the educational philosophies and curriculum orientations among preservice teachers by area of academic specialization?
B Are there significant differences in the educational philosophies and curriculum orientations among preservice teachers by area of program of study?
C Is the difference between educational philosophies and curriculum orientations between academic specializations the same for different programs of study? Answers to these questions are reported in this chapter. Following a description of the research sample, the statistical analysis is organized into two sections. The first of these includes results of analyses according to procedures identified within research questions and hypotheses. The second contains analysis of individual responses for each dependent variable, academic specialization and program of study.
Description of the Research Sample Studies of occupational socialization e. Educational researchers e. Goodman contends that it follows, then, that a crucial period for examining the development of a teachers' practical philosophy of teaching is during their preservice education. Description of the Respondent Group As indicated previously, of the sample members comprised the respondent group, yielding a response rate of Given the less than full response, the descriptions that follow are attributed to the respondent group rather than to the sample of preservice teachers.
Demographic variables.
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